Bradwardine was also a practitioner and exponent of the art of memory, a loosely associated group of mnemonic principles and techniques used to organize memory impressions, improve recall, and assist in the combination and ‘invention’ of ideas. His ”De Memoria Artificiali” (”c.” 1335) discusses memory training current during his time.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Thomas Bradwardine, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Brain and brain biology

Main|Brain|Neurology

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* Action potential

* Acetylcholine

* Acetylcholinesterase

* Aging and memory

* Albert Einstein’s brain

* Brain

* Central nervous system

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* Dendrite

* Dopamine

* Glial cells

* Human brain

* Long-term potentiation

* Nervous system

* Neurite

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* Neuron

* Neuroplasticity

* Neuroscience

* Neurotransmitter

* Sensory neuroscience

* Synapse

* Synaptic plasticity

Intelligence

Main|Intelligence

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* Cognition

* Sapience

* Experience

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* Knowledge

* Wisdom

* Strategy

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* Structure

* System

Nootropics (Cognitive enhancers and smart drugs)

Main|Nootropic

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* 5-HTP

* Adrafinil (Olmifon)

* Aniracetam

* Ashwagandha

* Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi)

* Caffeine

* Acetyl-L-carnitine

* Centrophenoxine

* Choline

* Cholinergics

* Chromium

* Coenzyme q-10

* Coffee

* Creatine

* DMAE

* Ergoloid mesylates (Hydergine)

* Huperzine A

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* Idebenone

* Inositol

* L-dopa

* Lecithin

* Lemon Balm

* Lipoic acid

* Methylphenidate (Ritalin)

* Modafinil (Provigil)

* Oxiracetam

* Phenibut

* Phenylalanine

* Piracetam (Nootropil)

* Pramiracetam

* Pyritinol (Enerbol)

* Rhodiola Rosea

* Selegiline

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* Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus)

* St John’s Wort

* Sutherlandia Frutescens

* Tea

* Theanine

* Theophylline

* Tryptophan

* Tyrosine

* Vasopressin

* Vinpocetine

* Nicotinic acid

* Vitamin B5

* Vitamin B6

* Vitamin B12

* Vitamin C

* Yohimbe

Psychometrics (measuring intelligence and cognitive traits)

Main|Psychometrics

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* Intelligence quotient

* Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

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* Personality tests

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* Scholastic Aptitude Test

Thinking, artificial

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* Artificial creativity

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* Artificial intelligence

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* Computer program

Thinking, organizational (thinking by organizations)

Main|Organizational studies|Organizational psychology

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* Attribution theory

* Communication

* Concept testing

* Evaporating Cloud

* Fifth discipline

* Groupthink

* Group synergy

* Ideas bank

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* Interpretation

* Learning organization

* Metaplan

* Operations research

* Organization development

* Organizational communication

* Organizational culture

* Organizational ethics

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* Organizational learning

* Rhetoric

* Smart mob

* Strategic planning

* Systems thinking

* Theory of Constraints

* Think tank

* Wisdom of crowds

Thinking, personal=

Awareness

Main|Awareness

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* Attention

* Cognition

* Cognitive dissonance

* Cognitive map

* Concept

* Concept map

* Conceptual model

* Consciousness

* Domain knowledge

* Heuristic

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* Information

* Intelligence

* Intuition

* Knowledge

* Memory suppression

* Mental model

* Metaknowledge (knowledge about knowledge)

* Mind map

* Model

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* Option awareness

* Self-concept

* Self-consciousness

* Self-knowledge

* Self-realization

* Sentience

* Situational awareness

* Understanding

Creative processes and idea generation

Main|Creativity

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* Brainstorming

* Cognitive module

* Creativity

* Creative problem solving

* Creative writing

* Creative thinking

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* Creativity techniques

* Design thinking

* Hypothesis

* Idea

* Image streaming

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* Imagination

* Lateral thinking

* Six Thinking Hats

* Speech act

* Stream of consciousness

Decision making

Main|Decision making

{| style=”background-color: transparent; width:}”

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* Choice

* Cybernetics

* Decision making

* Decision theory

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* Executive system

* Goals and goal setting

* Judgement

* Planning

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* Rational choice theory

* Speech act

* Value

* Value judgment

Emotional intelligence (Emotionally-based thinking)

Main|Emotional intelligence

{| style=”background-color: transparent; width:}”

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* Acting

* Allophilia

* Attitude

* Curiosity

* Elaboration likelihood model

* Emotions and feelings

* Emotion and memory

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* Emotional contagion

* Empathy

* Mood

* Motivation

* Propositional attitude

* Rhetoric

* Self actualization

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* Self control

* Self-esteem

* Self-Determination Theory

* Self motivation

* Social cognition

* Will

* Volition

Erroneous thinking

columns-list|3|

* Black and white thinking

* Catastrophization

* Cognitive bias

* Cognitive distortion

* Error

* Exaggeration

* Fallacy

* Fallacies of definition

* List of fallacies

* Logical fallacy

* Minimisation

* Mistake

* Rationalization

* Rhetoric

* Straight and Crooked Thinking (book)

* Target fixation

Learning and Memory

Main|Education|Learning|Memory

columns-list|3|

* Autodidacticism

* Biofeedback

* Cognitive dissonance

* Dual-coding theory

* Eidetic memory (total recall)

* Emotion and memory

* Empiricism

* Feedback

* Feedback loop

* Free association

* Heuristics

* Hyperthymesia

* Hypnosis

* Hypothesis

* Imitation

* Inquiry

* Knowledge management

* Language acquisition

* Memory and aging

* Memory inhibition

* Memory-prediction framework

* Method of loci

* Mnemonics

* Neurofeedback

* Neuro-linguistic programming

* Observation

* Pattern recognition

* Question

* Reading

* Recall

* Recognition

* Recollection

* Scientific method

* Self-perception theory

* Speed reading

* Study Skills

* Subvocalization

* Transfer of learning

* Transfer of training

* Visual learning

Reason and reasoning

Main|Reason|Reasoning

{| style=”background-color: transparent; width:}”

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* Abductive reasoning

* Abstract thinking

* Analogy

* Analysis

* Attitude

* Calculation

* Categorization

* Cognition

* Cognitive restructuring

* Cognitive space

* Cognitive style

* Common sense

* Concept

* Conjecture

* Concrete concepts

* Critical thinking

* Deductive reasoning

* Definition

* Estimation

* Evaluation

* Explanation

* Gestalt psychology

* Heuristics

* Historical thinking

* Hypothesis

* Idea

* Identification

* Inductive reasoning

* Inference

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* Instinct

* Intelligence

* Intelligence amplification

* Intentionality

* Introspection

* Knowledge management

* Language

* Lateral thinking

* Linguistics

* Logic

* Logical argument

* Logical assertion

* Meaning

* Meaning

* Meaning

* Mental calculation

* Mental function

* Metacognition (thinking about thinking)

* Mind’s eye

* Mindset

* Multiple intelligences

* Multitasking

* Pattern matching

* Personality

* Picture thinking

* Prediction

* Premise

* Problem finding

* Problem shaping

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* Problem solving

** Process of elimination

** Systems thinking

*** Critical systems thinking

** Troubleshooting

* Proposition

* Rationality

* Reason

* Reasoning

* Self-reflection

* Sapience

* Semantic network

* Semantics

* Semiosis

* Semiotics

* Six Thinking Hats

* Speech act

* Stream of consciousness

* Syllogism

* Synectics

* Systems intelligence

* Thinkabout

* Thinking

* Thought act

* Thinking Maps

* Thinking Processes

* Thought experiment

* TRIZ

* Visual thinking

* Working memory

* Writing

Teaching methods and skills

Main|Education|Teaching

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* Active learning

* Classical conditioning

* Discipline

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* Learning theory

* Mentoring

* Operant conditioning

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* Problem-based learning

* Punishment

* Reinforcement

Other

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* Genius

* High IQ society

** Mega Society

** Mensa

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* Mind Sports Organisation

* Nobel Prize

* Philomath

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* Polymath

* Pulitzer Prize

* World Mind Sports Games

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Outline of thought, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Boot camp is a thirteen week cycle of training, beginning with a receiving phase of in-processing or “forming”, followed by three numbered phases. Each phase includes intensive education and training on various topics essential for military life. Each phase consists of a predetermined number of training days, these are counted in the training matrix as “T1″, “T2″, up to “T70″ which is Graduation Day.

Receiving Phase

The initial period of Marine Corps Boot Camp is called the Receiving Phase, which begins as the new recruits are on the bus en route to their recruit Depot. They are greeted by a drill instructor, who acquaints them with the Uniform Code of Military Justice, to which they are now subject. Disembarking from the bus, they line up on the famous “yellow footprints”, which is their first formation and learn how to stand at attention.

The recruits are given the opportunity to phone their next of kin and inform them of the recruit’s safe arrival, then are searched for contraband. They are issued utility and physical training uniforms and toiletries. From here, the males receive their first military haircut, where they are left essentially bald. Females are instructed in the authorized hairstyling, which allow hair to be short enough to not touch the collar or in a bun.

The remainder of receiving involves completing paperwork, issuing a M16A2 service rifle, receiving vaccines and medical tests, and storing civilian belongings under the eye of drill instructors set aside specifically for receiving. This takes approximately three days, usually without the opportunity to sleep, and ends with the Initial Strength Test (IST). The IST is a shortened form of the PFT to assess if a recruit is physically fit enough to begin training. To pass, a male recruit must complete at least 2 pull-ups, 35 crunches in two minutes, and run 1.5 miles in 13:30 minutes or less. The female recruits must hold a “flexed arm hang” (hanging on a bar with their arms bent) for at least 12 seconds, complete 35 crunches in two minutes, and run 1.5 miles in 15 minutes or less.

From this point, recruits experience “Black Friday”, where they meet their permanent Drill Instructors. They also meet their Company Commander, usually a captain, who orders their Drill Instructors to train them to become Marines and has them recite the Drill Instructor’s Creed. At this point recruit training truly begins. Recruits are familiarized with incentive training as one of the consequences of disobedience or failure to perform to a Drill Instructor’s expectations. The Drill Instructors physically, psychologically, and mentally challenge the recruits, including yelling at maximum volume and intimidation, to simulate stress of the battlefield and elicit immediate compliance to instructions. The remainder of receiving is made as confusing and disorienting for the recruits as possible, to help distance the recruits from civilian habits and to prepare them for Marine Corps discipline.

It is at this point that a recruit must come to terms with the decision he or she has made and develop the true determination needed to make it through the process of becoming a United States Marine. The final “moment of truth” is offered to those who have been dishonest about their eligibility, such as drug use, judicial convictions, or other disqualifying conditions.

Phase One

Phase One lasts approximately four weeks. Here, discipline will begin to be instilled in recruits by disorienting them and effectively cutting them off from civilian habits and mindsets, as well as reinforcing the mental and physical standards needed to perform under stressful situations that will be simulated in subsequent phases, and experienced in combat situations. Recruits are required to learn and strictly use language and terminology typical to the Marine Corps, often derived from naval terminology.

The purpose of the first phase is not only to physically challenge, but also to psychologically break down the recruit. At this point, civilian thoughts and habits are considered detrimental to training, so they are squashed during this period by intense physical training, unchanging routines, strict discipline, and heavy instruction. The process is designed to enable recruits to learn to survive in combat situations and generally to adapt and overcome any unexpected situation. One of the principal ideals learned during this period is that recruits are not to think of themselves as individuals; they are not permitted to use first person or second person pronouns. Instead, recruits are required to use third-person referrals, such as referring to themselves as “This recruit” and accomplish all tasks with teamwork. Any actions that put the benefit of an individual over the benefit of the other recruits are not permitted, and recruits are expected to conform to a standard that does not tolerate personal deviance or eccentricities. Speed, intensity and volume when speaking are valued as well.

The bulk of first-phase education consists of classes about the Marine Corps and its history and culture, first aid, rank structure and insignia, protocol, customs and courtesies, the 11 General Orders, aspects of the five paragraph order, prepare equipment for use (such as how to properly make a rack), regulations regarding uniforms, and other topics. Recruits learn through the use of rote memorization and mnemonics; recruits are expected to be able to recite a passage or quote in unison, without error, and on demand.

Close order drill is an important factor in recruit training, and begins from their first formation on the yellow footprints. In the first phase, they learn all of the basic commands and movements, memorizing the timing through the use of “ditties”, or mnemonics, that help synchronize a recruit’s movements with the rest of his or her platoon. Constant repetition and practice are used to facilitate muscle memory, so that any given movement can be rendered immediately and accurately upon order without hesitation. To aid in this development, drill movements are worked into other parts of daily life, to help increase the platoon’s synchronization and muscle memory; this same technique is used with other non-drill activities as well. The first inter-platoon contest, held in the last week of the first phase, is termed “initial drill”, where the platoon and junior-most drill instructor are graded as a whole on their performance in close order drill.

During this phase, recruits are familiarized with their rifle. This weapon, never referred to as a “gun”, stays with the recruit through the entirety of recruit training, being locked to his or her rack at night, while platoons will stack weapons together under guard for activities where retaining it is impractical, such as swimming. Recruits must memorize the rifle’s serial number, the four weapons safety rules, the four weapons conditions, and go through preparatory lessons in marksmanship. In addition, recruits use the rifles in close order drill, and will spend considerable time cleaning their weapons.

Recruits begin work toward earning their tan belt in the Marine Corps Martial Arts Program. Physical fitness gradually becomes more and more intense as recruits begin to get stronger and their bodies accustomed to the strain. Recruits undergo the first of their conditioning marches, which will grow in length. Periodic fitness tests assess which recruits need more attention, and those who consistently fail to meet the minimum are in danger of being sent to the PCP. Recruits will conduct two pugil stick bouts and are introduced to the obstacle course.

By the end of the first phase, recruits can march, respond to orders, pass the first written test, and keep up in physical fitness.

Phase Two

Phase Two of recruit training is an introduction to field skills, and includes two weeks of marksmanship training, a field week, and “Team Week”.

In the first week of the second phase, recruits are taught swimming and water survival. This is the first event where failure to pass will result in a recruit being dropped to a different company to restart training and attempt to qualify again. If a recruit fails twice, he or she will be evaluated to see if a third chance is warranted, or if the recruit will be deemed unable to qualify and administratively separated from service.

The second week is known as “Grass Week”. This week is partly spent in a class setting to learn about marksmanship principles of the M16A2 and how to shoot efficiently. When not in class, recruits are snapping in, or practicing their firing positions. Recruits are taught how to shoot by a Primary Marksmanship Instructor, a Marine of the MOS 0931. While range personnel wear campaign covers similar to drill instructors, PMIs are not drill instructors and generally not as strict in enforcing discipline upon recruits, focusing on marksmanship and expecting recruits to uphold their own discipline.

The third week is called “Firing Week”, which ends with Qualification Day. This week recruits are awakened early in the morning to prepare the rifle range for firing. They spend all day running through the Known Distance Course of fire (also known as table 1), in order to practice their marksmanship skills with live rounds. Half of the platoons will fire at the 200, 300 and 500 yard lines (182.88, 274.32 and 457.2 meters), in the standing, sitting, kneeling and prone positions; the other half will mark targets in the pits. Friday of that week is qualification day, where recruits must qualify with a minimum score in order to earn a marksmanship badge and continue training. Those who fail to qualify are given a second opportunity during Team Week; if they fail again, they are dropped and will repeat Grass Week. The Marines are the only branch of the United States armed forces that require the 500 yard line qualification. A trophy is awarded to the platoon with the highest cumulative scores.

After the rifle range, recruits begin Team Week. During this week, recruits are placed in various service jobs around the depot, such as yard work, cleaning, maintenance, etc. During this week, recruits will be able to revisit previous instruction and retake tests. Recruits that need to have medical or dental needs addressed, such as the extraction of wisdom teeth, have those procedures done here so that recovery time impacts training as little as possible. Recruits are also fitted for their service and dress uniforms.

Many companies choose to end team week with a weekend “field meet”, where platoons will compete in several military-related sports events, such as a rifle assembly race, sprints, a short marathon, an obstacle course race, and a tug of war.

Because MCRD San Diego is located in the center of a dense urban area, it is impractical to conduct rifle qualification and field training there. Instead, recruits are sent to the Edson Range at Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton for three weeks during the second phase. At the conclusion, they are returned to MCRD San Diego to continue training.

Phase Three

Phase Three is essentially the ‘polishing’ of the recruits, when their skills and knowledge are honed and tested.

Third phase begins with A-line, where recruits learn to fire their rifle under more realistic combat conditions, such as unknown distances, at night, and wearing a gas mask.

The next week sees recruits at Basic Warrior Training (BWT), where they learn the fundamentals of combat and will sleep in the field and eat MREs. Skills taught include camouflage, low crawling, land navigation, basic squad tactics, rapelling, and other foundations of military skills. BWT ends with the gas chamber, where recruits must don and clear their gas mask while exposed to CS gas, in order to be confident in its use in case of exposure to a lethal agent. Recruits who attempt to flee from the chamber before finishing or refuse to enter are dropped.

After this week, recruits return to garrison for the final drill competition, take the final PFT, and take the final written test (which culminates all of their academic and classroom topics); each event has a trophy for the highest-scoring platoon. At this point, recruits will take their MCMAP test and earn their tan belt; those who fail are dropped. Recruits then prepare for the Crucible.

The Crucible

The Crucible is the final test in recruit training, and represents the culmination of all of the skills and knowledge a Marine should possess. Designed in 1996 to emphasize the importance of teamwork in overcoming adversity, the Crucible is a rigorous 54-hour field training exercise demanding the application of everything a recruit has learned until that point in recruit training, and includes a total of 48 miles of marching. It simulates typical combat situations with strenuous testing, hardship, and the deprivation of food and sleep. A recruit is given three MREs (previously two and half) and four to eight hours of sleep through the entire 54-hour event. For this event, recruits are broken into squad-sized teams (possibly smaller) and placed under the charge of one drill instructor. West Coast recruits are returned to Edson Range for the Crucible. Parris Island recruits will conduct the Crucible in the derelict Page Airfield on the south end of the depot.

Throughout the Crucible, recruits are faced with physical and mental challenges that must be accomplished before advancing further. Teamwork is stressed, as the majority of tasks are completely impossible without it; each group must succeed or fail as a whole. The others will result in failure unless every recruit passes through together, requiring the team to aid their fellow recruit(s) who struggle in the accomplishment of the given mission. Also stressed are the Corps’ core values of ”Honor”, ”Courage”, and ”Commitment”; events sometimes present a moral challenge. Many challenge events are named after Marine Medal of Honor recipients or otherwise notable Marines, and drill instructors will often take the time to read the citation of the award and hold a guided discussion with the recruits to evaluate their moral development. Drill instructors are also vigilant for those recruits who succeed and fail in leadership positions.

Some of the challenges encountered during the Crucible are various team and individual obstacle courses, day and night assault courses, land navigation courses, individual rushes up steep hills, large-scale martial arts challenges, and countless patrols to and from each of these. Often, these challenges are made even more difficult by the additions of limitations or handicaps, such as the requirement to carry several ammunition drums, not touching portions of an obstacle painted red to indicate simulated booby traps, and evacuating team members with simulated wounds.

On the final day of the Crucible, recruits are awoken and begin their final march (known as the “Reaper” march on the west coast). Immediately following this, recruits are offered the “Warrior’s Breakfast”, where they are permitted to eat as much as they like, even of previously forbidden foods, such as ice cream. Following this is the Eagle, Globe, and Anchor ceremony, where the recruits receive the eponymous emblem, and thereby cease to be recruits, finally becoming Marines. In recent years, this ceremony has been moved to the day before graduation, and signals the start of Family Day.

Graduation

The final week of Recruit Training is referred to as “Marine Week” and includes the Battalion Commander’s Inspection, Family Day, and Graduation. During this week, Marines are instructed in some of the recruit behaviors that are no longer appropriate as Marines, such as referring to self in the third person. Final photos are taken, a representative from the School of Infantry will conduct a brief, and travel arrangements are made for a ten day leave.

The last full day before graduation is called Family Day. The public day begins early with a “Motivational Run”, when the new Marines run (by company, then by platoon) yelling Marine Corps Cadences, past their families; circling the base and ending at the parade deck. The newest Marines are dismissed to on-base liberty with their families from late morning until early evening. During the last night, some platoons allow the recruits to host a gong show, where they perform skits regarding humorous moments during training, especially of their drill instructors. Some drill instructors will use this as an excuse to perform incentive training on their platoon one last time.

The next morning, the new Marines form for their graduation ceremony, march across the parade deck, and are dismissed from recruit training by their senior drill instructors.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article United States Marine Corps Recruit Training, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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In the program, a digital aerobics instructor named Maya (voiced by Yumi Lee) serves as the player’s guide. Maya leads the player through a series of exercises that is specially tailored to the player’s current health and specifics. This is achieved by dynamically tracking their progress on an ongoing profile using the hard drive (or the PS2′s memory card), setting up a schedule to be followed, and Maya making suggestions to the player using computations being made by the program. Maya leads the exercises in a variety of locations and accompanied by music from several music genres, all of which are selected before the workout by the player, and more of which can be unlocked by keeping to the schedule.

The game includes over 500 types of exercises, although some exercises with multiple directions or emphases are counted as separate in this tally. Furthermore, if the player owns an exercise ball, hand weights, an exercise step, or a heart rate monitor, Maya can incorporate these into the program. Through the workout, Maya will stop to ask how the player is doing; their reply will affect whether the program strengthens, weakens, or leaves the current regimen as it is.

The game was ported to Wii in 2008 by Ubisoft under the title ”My Fitness Coach”. Although the port was likely intended to capitalize on the popularity of Nintendo’s Wii Fit, ”My Fitness Coach” did not make use of the Wii Balance Board accessory, and its functionality was essentially the same as the Xbox and PlayStation 2 versions.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Yourself!Fitness, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Cagney was born on the Lower East Side of Manhattan in New York City on the corner of Avenue D and 8th Street. His father, James Sr. was an Irish American bartender and amateur boxer; Cagney was born in a room above his father’s saloon. His mother, Carolyn Nelson, was half Irish, half Norwegian; her father was a Norwegian ship captain while her mother was Irish American. The family moved twice when he was still young, first to East 79th Street, and then to East 96th Street. Cagney was the second of seven children, two of whom died within months of birth; he himself had been very sick as a young child, so much so that his mother feared he would die before being baptized. He later attributed his sickness to the level of poverty in which they grew up.

The red-haired, blue-eyed Cagney graduated from Stuyvesant High School in New York City in 1918, and attended Columbia College of Columbia University where he intended to major in art. He also took German and joined the Student Army Training Corps, but dropped out after one semester, returning home upon the death of his father during the 1918 flu pandemic.

He had a range of jobs early in his life, and gave all his earnings to the family: junior architect, copy boy for the ”New York Sun”, book custodian at the New York Public Library, bellhop, draughtsman and a night doorman. Cagney believed in hard work, later stating: “It was good for me. I feel sorry for the kid who has too cushy a time of it. Suddenly he has to come to face-to-face with the realities of life without any mama or papa to do his thinking for him.”

He started tap dancing as a boy (a skill that would eventually contribute to his Academy Award) and was nicknamed “Cellar-Door Cagney” after his habit of dancing on slanted cellar doors. He was a good street fighter, defending his older brother Harry, a medical student, against all comers when it was required. He engaged in amateur boxing, and was a runner-up in the New York State lightweight title. His coaches encouraged him to turn professional, but his mother would not allow it. He also played semi-professional baseball for a local team, and entertained dreams of playing in the Major Leagues.

His introduction to films was unusual; when visiting an aunt in Brooklyn who lived opposite Vitagraph Studios, Cagney would climb over the fence to watch the filming of John Bunny films. He became involved in amateur dramatics, starting as a scenery boy for a Chinese pantomime at Lenox Hill Neighborhood House, one of the first Settlement Houses in the Nation, where his brother, Harry, performed. He was initially content working behind the scenes, and had no interest in performing. One night, however Harry became ill, and although James was not an understudy, his photographic memory of rehearsals allowed him to stand in for his brother without making a single mistake. Afterward, he joined a number of companies as a performer in a variety of roles.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article James Cagney, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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The golfer must focus on golf-specific muscular strength, stability and balance, postural control and the development of power.

A golfer requires the following training:

*Aerobic activity to warm up the body and maintain cardiovascular conditioning

*Flexibility training

*Strength training – upper body, lower body and trunk

*Balance training

*Stabilization training (including muscle memory and power training).

The training regime varies depending on certain factors, such as time of week, time of season, practice time available, volume versus intensity, and so on.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Golf fitness, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Investigating the neuronal processing of musical syntax can serve two interesting aspects. The first is to learn more about the processing of music in general. That is which areas of the brain are involved and if there are specific markers of brain activity due to the processing of music and musical syntax. The second aspect is to compare the processing of musical and linguistic syntax to find out, if they have an effect upon each other or if there even is a significant overlap. The verification of an overlap would support the thesis, that syntactic operations (musical as well as linguistic) are modular. “Modular” means, that the complex system of processing is decomposed into subsystems with modular functions. Concerning the processing of syntax this would mean, that the domain of music and language each have specific syntactic representations, but that they share neural resources for activating and integrating these representations during syntactic processing.

Processing of music and musical syntax=

Requirements

Processing of music and musical syntax comprises several aspects concerning melodic, rhythmic, metric, timbral and harmonic structure. For the processing of chord functions four steps in processing can be described.

(1)Primarily, a tonal centre has to be detected out of the first chords of a sequence. Often the first chord is interpreted as the tonal centre of a sequence and a reevaluation is necessary, if the first chord has another harmonic function.

(2)Successive chords are related to this tonal centre concerning their harmonic dis

(3)As described above (Does music have a syntax?), music has a hierarchical structure in terms of pitch organization and organization of tensioning and releasing in music. Pitch organization concerning chords means, that in a musical phrase the tonic is the most stable chord and experienced as the resting point. The dominant and subdominant anon are more stable than the submediant and the supertonic. The progression of chords in time forms a tonal structure based on pitch organization, in which moving away from the tonic is perceived as tensioning and moving towards the tonic is experienced as releasing. Therefore hierarchical relations may convey organized patterns of meaning.

(4)Concerning harmonic aspects of major-minor tonal music, Musical syntax can be characterized by statistical regularities in the succession of chord functions in time, that is probabilities of chord transitions. As these regularities are stored in a long-term memory, predictions about following chords are made automatically, when listening to a musical phrase.

MMN and ERAN

The violation of these automatically made predictions lead to the observation of so called ERPs (event related potential, a stereotyped electrophysiological response to an internal or external stimulus). Two forms of ERPs can be detected in the context of processing music. One is the MMN (mismatch negativity), which has first been investigated only with physical deviants like frequency, intensity, timbre deviants (referred to as phMMN) and could now also be shown for changes of abstract auditory features like tone pitches (referred to as afMMN). The other one is the so called ERAN (early right anterior negativity) which can be elicited by syntactic irregularities in music. Both the ERAN and the MMN are ERPs indicating a mismatch between predictions based on regularities and actually experienced acoustic information. As for a long time it seemed to be, that the ERAN is a special variant of the MMN, the question arises, why they are told apart today. There are several differences between the MMN and the ERAN found in the last years:

Differences-occurrence

Even though music syntactic regularities are often simultaneously acoustical similar and music syntactic irregularities are often simultaneously acoustical different, an ERAN but not an MMN can be elicit, when a chord does not represent a physical but a syntactic deviance. To demonstrate this, so called “Neapolitan sixth chords” are used. These are consonant chords when played solitary, but which are added into a musical phrase of in which they are only distantly related to the harmonic context. Added into a chord sequence of five chords, the addition of a Neapolitan sixth chord at the third or at the fifth position evokes different amplitudes of ERANs in the EEG with a higher amplitude at the fifth position. Nevertheless, when creating a chord sequence in which the Neapolitan chord at the fifth position is music-syntactically less irregular than a Neapolitan chord at the third position, the amplitude is higher at the third position (see figure 4…). In opposition to the MMN, a clear ERAN is also elicited by using syntactically irregular chords which are acoustically more similar to a proceeding harmonic context than syntactically regular chords. Therefore the MMN seems to be based on an on-line establishment of regularities. That means, that the regularities are extracted on-line from the acoustic environment. In opposition, the ERAN rests upon representations of music-syntactic regularities which exist in a long-term memory format and which are learned during early childhood.

Differences-development

This is represented in the development of the ERAN and MMN. The ERAN cannot be verified in newborn babies, whereas the MMN can actually be demonstrated in fetus. In two year old children, the ERAN is very small, in five year old children a clear ERAN is found, but with a longer latency than in adults. With the age of 11 years children show an ERAN similar to ERANs in adults. Out of these observation the thesis can be built that the MMN is essential for the establishment and maintenance of representations of the acoustic environment and for processes of the auditory scene analysis. But only the ERAN is completely based on learning to built up a structural model, which is established with reference to representations of syntactic regularities already existing in a long-term memory format. Considering effects of training both the ERAN and the MMN can be modulated by training.

Differences-neural sources

Differences between the ERAN and the MMN also exist in the neural sources for the main contributions to the ERPs. The sources for the ERAN are located in the pars opercularis of the inferior fronto-lateral cortex (inferior Brodmann’s area with contributions from the ventrolateral premotor cortex and the anterior superior temporal gyrus, whereas the MMN receives its main contributions from and within the vicinity of the primary auditory cortex with additional sources in the frontal cortical areas. Therefore the sources for the ERAN basically lie in the frontal cortex whereas the sources for the MMN are located in the temporal lobe. Other hints for this thesis emerge from the fact that under a propofol sedation which mainly has an impact on the frontal cortex, the ERAN is abolished while the MMN is only reduced. At last, the amplitude of the ERAN is reduced under ignore conditions whereas the MMN is largely unaffected by attentional modulations.

Processes to elicit the MMN or ERAN

(1)First, a separation of sound sources, an extraction of sound features and the establishment of representations of auditory objects of the incoming acoustic input have to be made. The same processes are required for the MMN and ERAN.

(2)For the MMN regularities are filtered on-line out of the input to create a model of the acoustic environment. At this point, there is a difference to the ERAN as for the ERAN representations of regularities already exist in a long-term memory format and the incoming sound is integrated into a pre existent model of musical structure.

(3)According to the model of musical structure, predictions concerning forthcoming auditory events are formed. This process is similar for the ERAN and for the MMN.

(4)At least a comparison between the actually incoming sound and the predictions based on the model is made. This process is partly the same for the MMN and the ERAN as well.

Comparison of the processing of musical and linguistic syntax

As the ERAN is similar to an ERP called ELAN which can be elicited by violation of linguistic syntax it seems to be obvious that the ERAN really represents syntactic processing. Deduced from this thought an interaction between music-syntactic and language-syntactic processing would be very likely.There are different possibilities in neuroscience to approach to an answer to the question of an overlap between the neuronal processing of linguistic and musical syntax.

Neuropsychological approach

This method deals with the question, how structure and function of the brain relate to outcomes in behaviour and other psychological processes. From this area of research there has been evidence for the dissociation between musical and linguistic syntactic abilities. In case reports it was possible to show that amusia ( a deficiency in fine-grainded perception of pitch which leads to musical tone-deafness and can be congenital or acquired later in life as from brain damage) is not necessarily linked to aphasia (severe language impairments following brain damage) and vice versa. This means that individuals with normal speech and language abilities showed musical tone-deafness as well as individuals with language impairments had sufficient means of musical syntactic abilities. The problem of neuropsychologic research is that there has not been a former case report which showed that aphasia does not necessarily entail amusia in non-musicians, to the contrary newer findings suggest that amusia is almost always linked to aphasia.

Neuroimaging

Furthermore, results from neuroimaging led to the “shared syntactic integration resource hypothesis” (SSIRH), which supports the presumption, that there is an overlap between the processing of musical and linguistic syntax and that syntactic operations are modular. Furthermore, research using the method of electroencephalography has shown that a difficulty or irritation in musical as well as in linguistic syntax elicit ERPs which are similar to each other.

How can the discrepancy between neuropsychology and neuroimaging be explained?

Modularity

In fact, the concept of modularity itself can help to understand the different and apparently contradicting findings in neuropsychologic research and neuroimaging. Introducing the concept of a dual system, in which there is a distinction between syntactic representation and syntactic processing, this could mean, that there is a distinction between long-term structural knowledge in a domain (representation) and operations conducted on that knowledge (syntactic processing). A damage in an area representing long-term musical knowledge would lead to amusia without aphasia, but a damage in an area representing syntactic processing would cause an impairment of both musical and linguistic syntactic processing.

Comparison of syntactic processing-three theories

The comparison of the syntactic processing of language and music is based on three theories which should be mentioned but which are not explained in detail. The first two, the “dependency locality theory” and the “expectancy theory” refer to syntactic processing in language, whereas the third one, the “tonal pitch space theory”, relates to the syntactic processing in music.

The language theories contribute to the concept that in order to conceive the structure of a sentence, resources are consumed. If the conception of a this structure is difficult due to the fact that distant words belong to each other or an expected structure of the sentence is violated, more resources, namely the ones for activating low-activation items, are consumed.

Violating an anticipated structure in music could mean a harmonically unexpected note or chord in a musical sequence. As in language this is associated with a “processing cost due to the tonal distance” (Patel, 2008) and therefore means that more resources are needed for activating low-activation items.

SSIRH-the leading concept

Overall these theories lead to the “shared syntactic integration resources hypothesis” as the areas from which low-activation items are activated could be the correlate to the overlap between linguistic and musical syntax.

Strong evidence for the existence of this overlap comes from studies, in which music-syntactic and a linguistic-syntactic irregularities were presented simultaneously. They showed an interaction between the ERAN and the LAN (left anterior negativity;ERP which is elicited by linguistic-syntactic irregularities). The LAN elicited was reduced when an irregular word was presented simultaneously with an irregular chord compared to the condition when an irregular word was presented with a regular chord. Contrary to this finding the phMMN elicited by frequency deviants did not interact with the LAN.

From this facts it can be reasoned that the ERAN relies on neural resources related to syntactic processing (Koelsch 2008). Furthermore they give strong evidence for the thesis, that there is an overlap between the processing of musical and linguistic syntax and therefore that syntactic operations (musical as well as linguistic) are modular.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Musical syntax, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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The origins of the netbook can be traced to the Network Computer (NC) concept of the mid-1990s. In March 1997, Apple Computer introduced the eMate 300 as a subcompact laptop that was a cross between the Apple Newton PDA and a conventional laptop computer. The eMate was discontinued, along with all other Newton devices, in 1998 with the return of Steve Jobs. More recently, Psion’s now-discontinued netBook line, the OLPC XO-1 (initially called US$100 laptop) and the Palm Foleo were all small, portable, network-enabled computers. The generic use of the term “netbook”, however, began in 2007 when Asus unveiled the ASUS Eee PC. Originally designed for emerging markets, the device weighed about and featured a display, a keyboard approximately 85% the size of a normal keyboard, a solid-state drive and a custom version of Linux with a simplified user interface geared towards netbook use. Following the Eee PC, Everex launched its Linux-based CloudBook; Windows XP and Windows Vista models were also introduced and MSI released the Wind – others soon followed suit.

The OLPC project, known for its innovation in producing a durable, cost- and power-efficient netbook for developing countries, is regarded as one of the major factors that led top computer hardware manufacturers to begin creating low-cost netbooks for the consumer market. When the first ASUS Eee PC sold over 300,000 units in four months, companies such as Dell and Acer took note and began producing their own inexpensive netbooks. And while the OLPC XO-1 targets a different audience than do the other manufacturers&

By late 2008, netbooks had begun to take market share away from notebooks. In contrast to earlier, largely failed attempts to establish mini computers as a new class of mainstream personal computing devices built around comparatively expensive platforms requiring proprietary software applications or imposing severe usability limitations, the recent success of netbooks can also be attributed to the fact that PC technology has now matured enough to allow truly cost optimized implementations with enough performance to suit the needs of a majority of PC users. This is illustrated by the fact that typical system performance of a netbook is on the level of a mainstream PC in 2001, at around one quarter of the cost. While this performance level suffices for most of the user needs, it caused an increased interest in resource-efficient applications such as Google’s Chrome, and forced Microsoft to extend availability of Windows XP in order to secure market share. It is estimated that almost thirty times more netbooks were sold in 2008 (11.4 million, 70% of which were in Europe) than in 2007 (400,000). For 2009, sales are expected to jump to 35 million, rising to an estimated 139 million in 2013. This trend is reinforced by the rise of web-based applications as well as mobile networking and, according to Wired Magazine, netbooks are evolving into “super-portable laptops for professionals”. The ongoing recession is also helping with the growing sales of netbooks.

In Australia, the New South Wales Department of Education and Training, in partnership with Lenovo, are providing Year 9 (high school) students in government high schools with free Lenovo S10e netbooks in 2009 and Lenovo Mini 10 netbooks in 2010 preloaded with software including Microsoft Office and Adobe Systems’ Creative Suite 4. This is provided under Prime Minister Kevin Rudd’s Digital Education Revolution, or DER. The netbooks run Windows 7 Enterprise. They have unique tracking devices built-in that the police can use to track the device if it is lost or stolen. The NSW DET retains ownership of these netbooks until the student graduates from Year 12, when the student can keep it.

Greece is providing all 13 year old students (middle school, or ”gymnasium”, freshmen) and their teachers with free netbooks in 2009 through the “Digital Classroom Initiative”. Students are given one unique coupon each, with which they redeem the netbook of their choice, up to a €450 price ceiling, in participating shops throughout the country. These netbooks come bundled with localised versions of either Windows XP (or higher) or open source (e.g. Linux) operating systems, wired and wireless networking functionality, antivirus protection, preactivated parental controls, and an educational software package.

Microsoft and Intel have tried to “cement” netbooks in the low end of the market to protect mainstream notebook PC sales, because they get lower margins on low-cost models. The companies have limited the specifications of netbooks, but despite this original equipment manufacturers have announced higher-end netbooks models as of March 2009.

Ending in 2008 the report was that the typical netbook featured a weight, a screen, wireless Internet connectivity, Linux or Windows XP, an Intel Atom processor, and a cost of less than $400 US. A mid-2009 newspaper article said that a typical netbook is , $300 US, and has a screen,

of random-access memory, a hard disk drive, and a wireless transceiver for both home and a mobile network. Buyers drove the netbook market towards larger screens, which grew from in the original Asus Eee PC 700 to models in the summer of 2009.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Netbook, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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*Basic Training (Numerical Test)

*Advanced Training (Counting Test, Focus Test, Memory Test)

*Test Data (Graphs, Memory Analysis, Focus Analysis, Counting Analysis)

Category:Educational toys

ja:脳力トレーナー
Adapted from the Wikipedia article Brain Trainer, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Early Childhood Education Act

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